Literature Review
An extensive review of relevant literature is currently ongoing, focussing on published books, journal papers, and recent conference papers. Whilst the subject of Gothic architecture has been extensively researched, relatively little of this has been concerned with the structural behaviour of such buildings.
It is perhaps surprising that a large proportion of the research on this topic has been carried out in America, given that the vast majority of the structures concerned are located in western and central Europe.
We have attempted to divide the literature into four categories: Gothic Design and Structure; Vault Failures; Holyrood Abbey; and Experimental Tests.
Gothic Design and Structure
Acland, J. (1972). Medieval Structure: The Gothic Vault. University of Toronto Press; Toronto [Canada]. ISBN-10: 0802018866.
This book gives a comprehensive history of vaults across Europe, beginning with the most primitive forms of barrel vault and ending with modern-day vault-based structures. Particular detail is given to the construction of medieval vaults, and the issues that led to their development over the centuries.
Fitchen, J. (1961). The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals. Oxford University Press; London [UK]. ISBN-10: 019817134X / ISBN-13: 978-0198171348.
To be reviewed...
Theodossopoulos, D. (2008). Structural Design of High Gothic Vaulting Systems in England. International Journal of Architectural Heritage: Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration. Vol 2 (1). DOI: 10.1080/15583050701516484. Taylor & Francis; London [UK].
A study by Dimitris Theodossopoulos into the development of High Gothic vaulting systems in England. There is a discussion of the regional technical advances such as the rib, and the strive for visual unification between the arcade, triforium and clerestory. Significant innovations at the high vaults of the cathedrals of Durham, Canterbury, Wells and Lincoln are discussed and analysed for their structural behaviour and efficiency. There is a discussion of the deflections and crack patterns that develop, and how much the abutments can spread before causing collapse.
Theodossopoulos, D. (2004). Structural scheme of the Cathedral of Burgos. Proc. Int. Conf. Struct. analysis of historical constructions, Padua; Modena, Lourenco & Roca ads., Taylor & Francis, London [UK].
A 3D finite element study is carried out to assess the overall structural scheme of the cathedral of Burgos in Spain. A linear elastic analysis is performed on the quarter-model of a bay in the nave (due to symmetry) when subjected to self weight only. The results of the FE analysis denote the inherent strength of this cathedral as the resultant stresses were all low, and mostly all below the material strength. The model also provided a good visual representation of the stress distribution throughout the structure, their pathology and the important interactions that take place between each of the constituent parts of the structure.
Vault Failures
Theodossopoulos, D. and Sinha, B. (2008). Structural Safety and Failure Modes in Gothic Vaulting Systems. 8th International Seminar on Structural Masonry, Istanbul, November 2008.
A discussion of the pathology of Gothic vaults due to lateral instability, using data collected from various sources in the technical literature to establish the major failure patterns and determine service and failure limits of deformation. Causes of failure such as lateral instability, design errors and inappropriate interventions are discussed, with the authors concluding that “a displacement of the supports by 1/30 of the span can be defined as the serviceability limit after which the cracks cause the geometric instability of the vault”.
Theodossopoulos, D., Sinha, B., and Usmani, A. (2003). Case Study of the Failure of a Cross Vault: Church of Holyrood Abbey. Journal of Architectural Engineering. Vol. 9 (3). DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0431(2003)9:3(109), p. 109-117.
Based on research carried out at the University of Edinburgh, this paper looks in detail at the 1768 collapse of the nave vaults at Holyrood Abbey, Edinburgh, following a disastrous ‘restoration’. The main source of data is the testing of a quarter-scale replica model of one of the vaults, which was tested initially under service loads before being tested to collapse due to movement of the front two abutments. The analysis found that collapse was dominated by membrane tensile failure in the groins, concluding that this area is critical for the stability of the vault.
One of the major aims of our thesis is to compare our own findings with those from this research, as we will be using the same replica model and test methods but under slightly different conditions.
Holyrood Abbey
Dunbar, J. (1966). The Historic Architecture of Scotland. B. T. Batsford Ltd.; London [UK]. ASIN: B000X74WB8, p. 131-169.
The chapter on cathedrals, abbeys and churches gives general information on the history of various significant examples, including Holyrood Abbey and Melrose Abbey, as well as any particular features worthy of note.
Gifford, J., McWilliam, C., and Walker, D. (1984). The Buildings of Scotland: Edinburgh. Penguin Books; London [UK]. ISBN-10: 014071068X, p. 125-141.
Part of a series looking at notable buildings across various regions of Scotland. The chapter on Holyrood Abbey and Palace provides detailed information on the original form of the abbey and the history of its demise, as well as some conjectural reconstructions of its original appearance.
Theodossopoulos, D., Sinha, B., and Usmani, A. (2003). Case Study of the Failure of a Cross Vault: Church of Holyrood Abbey. Journal of Architectural Engineering. Vol. 9 (3). DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0431(2003)9:3(109), p. 109-117.
Discussed above (Vault Failures).
Experimental Tests
Mark, R. (1982). Experiments in Gothic Structure. The MIT Press; Cambridge, Mass. [USA]. ISBN-10: 0262131706.
A study by American engineer Robert Mark into various enigmas of Gothic structure such as the development of the flying buttress, the role of pinnacles, as well as an in-depth investigation into the collapse of Beauvais Cathedral in France. There is also an analysis of the effectiveness of various types of vault, based on case studies of the high vaults at Cologne and Bourges Cathedrals. Much of the book is based on research using Mark’s own technique of photoelastic modelling, which has since been rendered obsolete by the development of computer modelling, but is effective at finding the location of stresses within the cross-section of a structure.
It is perhaps surprising that a large proportion of the research on this topic has been carried out in America, given that the vast majority of the structures concerned are located in western and central Europe.
We have attempted to divide the literature into four categories: Gothic Design and Structure; Vault Failures; Holyrood Abbey; and Experimental Tests.
Gothic Design and Structure
Acland, J. (1972). Medieval Structure: The Gothic Vault. University of Toronto Press; Toronto [Canada]. ISBN-10: 0802018866.
This book gives a comprehensive history of vaults across Europe, beginning with the most primitive forms of barrel vault and ending with modern-day vault-based structures. Particular detail is given to the construction of medieval vaults, and the issues that led to their development over the centuries.
Fitchen, J. (1961). The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals. Oxford University Press; London [UK]. ISBN-10: 019817134X / ISBN-13: 978-0198171348.
To be reviewed...
Theodossopoulos, D. (2008). Structural Design of High Gothic Vaulting Systems in England. International Journal of Architectural Heritage: Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration. Vol 2 (1). DOI: 10.1080/15583050701516484. Taylor & Francis; London [UK].
A study by Dimitris Theodossopoulos into the development of High Gothic vaulting systems in England. There is a discussion of the regional technical advances such as the rib, and the strive for visual unification between the arcade, triforium and clerestory. Significant innovations at the high vaults of the cathedrals of Durham, Canterbury, Wells and Lincoln are discussed and analysed for their structural behaviour and efficiency. There is a discussion of the deflections and crack patterns that develop, and how much the abutments can spread before causing collapse.
Theodossopoulos, D. (2004). Structural scheme of the Cathedral of Burgos. Proc. Int. Conf. Struct. analysis of historical constructions, Padua; Modena, Lourenco & Roca ads., Taylor & Francis, London [UK].
A 3D finite element study is carried out to assess the overall structural scheme of the cathedral of Burgos in Spain. A linear elastic analysis is performed on the quarter-model of a bay in the nave (due to symmetry) when subjected to self weight only. The results of the FE analysis denote the inherent strength of this cathedral as the resultant stresses were all low, and mostly all below the material strength. The model also provided a good visual representation of the stress distribution throughout the structure, their pathology and the important interactions that take place between each of the constituent parts of the structure.
Vault Failures
Theodossopoulos, D. and Sinha, B. (2008). Structural Safety and Failure Modes in Gothic Vaulting Systems. 8th International Seminar on Structural Masonry, Istanbul, November 2008.
A discussion of the pathology of Gothic vaults due to lateral instability, using data collected from various sources in the technical literature to establish the major failure patterns and determine service and failure limits of deformation. Causes of failure such as lateral instability, design errors and inappropriate interventions are discussed, with the authors concluding that “a displacement of the supports by 1/30 of the span can be defined as the serviceability limit after which the cracks cause the geometric instability of the vault”.
Theodossopoulos, D., Sinha, B., and Usmani, A. (2003). Case Study of the Failure of a Cross Vault: Church of Holyrood Abbey. Journal of Architectural Engineering. Vol. 9 (3). DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0431(2003)9:3(109), p. 109-117.
Based on research carried out at the University of Edinburgh, this paper looks in detail at the 1768 collapse of the nave vaults at Holyrood Abbey, Edinburgh, following a disastrous ‘restoration’. The main source of data is the testing of a quarter-scale replica model of one of the vaults, which was tested initially under service loads before being tested to collapse due to movement of the front two abutments. The analysis found that collapse was dominated by membrane tensile failure in the groins, concluding that this area is critical for the stability of the vault.
One of the major aims of our thesis is to compare our own findings with those from this research, as we will be using the same replica model and test methods but under slightly different conditions.
Holyrood Abbey
Dunbar, J. (1966). The Historic Architecture of Scotland. B. T. Batsford Ltd.; London [UK]. ASIN: B000X74WB8, p. 131-169.
The chapter on cathedrals, abbeys and churches gives general information on the history of various significant examples, including Holyrood Abbey and Melrose Abbey, as well as any particular features worthy of note.
Gifford, J., McWilliam, C., and Walker, D. (1984). The Buildings of Scotland: Edinburgh. Penguin Books; London [UK]. ISBN-10: 014071068X, p. 125-141.
Part of a series looking at notable buildings across various regions of Scotland. The chapter on Holyrood Abbey and Palace provides detailed information on the original form of the abbey and the history of its demise, as well as some conjectural reconstructions of its original appearance.
Theodossopoulos, D., Sinha, B., and Usmani, A. (2003). Case Study of the Failure of a Cross Vault: Church of Holyrood Abbey. Journal of Architectural Engineering. Vol. 9 (3). DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0431(2003)9:3(109), p. 109-117.
Discussed above (Vault Failures).
Experimental Tests
Mark, R. (1982). Experiments in Gothic Structure. The MIT Press; Cambridge, Mass. [USA]. ISBN-10: 0262131706.
A study by American engineer Robert Mark into various enigmas of Gothic structure such as the development of the flying buttress, the role of pinnacles, as well as an in-depth investigation into the collapse of Beauvais Cathedral in France. There is also an analysis of the effectiveness of various types of vault, based on case studies of the high vaults at Cologne and Bourges Cathedrals. Much of the book is based on research using Mark’s own technique of photoelastic modelling, which has since been rendered obsolete by the development of computer modelling, but is effective at finding the location of stresses within the cross-section of a structure.
All photos are the property of Michael Scott or James Sanderson unless otherwise stated.
© 2013 James Sanderson and Michael Scott | All rights reserved.
School of Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, University of Edinburgh
© 2013 James Sanderson and Michael Scott | All rights reserved.
School of Engineering, College of Science and Engineering, University of Edinburgh